Humane euthanasia of birds — preparedness and practice, including in a High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) context

guidance is prepared to help veterinarians deal with specific issues in practice it presents a good way of applying professional standards, but this may not be the only way veterinarians can safely rely on our guidance, but they do not have to follow it if they believe another approach is better, provided it complies with legislative standards, our standards and statements, and they apply good professional judgement because our guidance is specific, it won’t apply in every situation purpose and scope this guidance helps veterinarians prepare for, and carry out, the humane euthanasia of companion and captive birds, and wild birds it sets out methods the vet council considers appropriate and inappropriate, and the factors that influence choosing a method, including bird type, body size, flock or group size, the setting, and the resources and competence available it has been prompted by the detection of high pathogenicity avian influenza (hpai) h5n1 in new zealand much of the guidance applies to euthanasia of any bird in any circumstance sections specific to a suspected or confirmed hpai situation are marked accordingly this guidance does not cover the wider hpai response, public messaging, or the decision whether to examine or admit a suspect bird for these, you can refer to the vet council’s veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak https //hub vetcouncil org nz/veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak , the ministry for primary industries (mpi) guidance for dealing with sick or dead birds during an h5 bird flu outbreak https //www mpi govt nz/dmsdocument/72339 guidance for dealing with sick or dead birds during an h5 bird flu outbreak , and the department of conservation (doc) \[i] important notes for the public do not handle or move sick birds if you see three or more sick or dead wild birds in a group, avoid contact, record what you see and report it to the exotic pest and disease hotline on 0800 80 99 66 from anywhere in new zealand you can also report online at report mpi govt nz key messages euthanasia is the induction of a humane death — rapid loss of consciousness followed by death, with the least achievable pain, fear and distress this is a requirement of section 12 of the animal welfare act the animal’s welfare comes first, alongside the safety of people section 138 https //www legislation govt nz/act/public/1999/142/en/latest/#dlm51273 of the animal welfare act provides for veterinarians presented with sick or injured wild birds (except for species protected under the wildlife act 1953 https //www legislation govt nz/act/public/1953/31/en/latest/#dlm276814 ) to, using their judgement, humanely destroy them a method is only acceptable if the veterinarian using it has the competence, experience, equipment or drugs to carry it out reliably for the species and size of the bird in front of them in an hpai context, human safety and biosecurity considerations may change which method is most appropriate, but they do not lower the welfare standard expected of the chosen method where euthanasia is delegated to, or carried out by, a non veterinarian, the supervising veterinarian remains responsible for ensuring it is done competently, lawfully and humanely plan ahead your practice should decide how it will euthanise a swan, a backyard flock, a raptor or a wild seabird before one is presented, not during the event decision to euthanase in the case of wild birds euthanasia is not the default a proportion of birds with clinical signs recover, so reflexively euthanising every bird is not necessarily always appropriate physically examining a suspect wild bird is not always required where a diagnosis of hpai is plausible based on history and presenting signs, veterinarians can use their judgement to make a presumptive diagnosis the code of professional conduct expects veterinarians not to ignore animal welfare concerns, and this document outlines appropriate euthanasia methods that can be easily employed veterinarians are better placed to deal with these situations than most of the public whether to examine, admit, treat, refer, return or euthanase a suspect bird sits in the companion hpai guidance https //hub vetcouncil org nz/veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak having a list of veterinary referral options for suspected hpai infected birds readily available would be a practical step importantly personal and team safety come first where a veterinarian is unable to meet suitable personal safety measures and weighing the risks to themselves and the person who presented the bird, it may be considered acceptable to decline to examine a wild bird, make an assessment based on the history and observable information, and to direct the person to leave it where it is or return it to where it was found this document covers how to prepare for, and to euthanase birds humanely once a decision is made \[ii] the professional standards to which this guidance applies veterinarians’ obligations when euthanasing birds arise from, and should be read with, the following standards and legislation animal welfare the code of professional conduct (the code), part 1, requires veterinarians to act as advocates for animal welfare and not to allow animals to suffer unreasonable or unnecessary pain or distress the animal welfare act 1999 underpins these obligations \[iii] competence the code and the competency standards and performance indicators require veterinarians to practise within their sphere of competence (which includes competence relating to species, conditions and available equipment), except in an emergency where immediate relief of pain is required \[iv] veterinary medicines and controlled drugs part 6 of the code, the acvm act 1997, the medicines act 1981, the misuse of drugs act 1975, and regulations 1977 govern the authorisation, storage, use and recording of the agents commonly used for euthanasia, including pentobarbitone \[v] health and safety the health and safety at work act 2015 requires veterinarians and veterinary businesses, as duty holders, to manage risks to workers and others as much as they reasonably can this is central in an hpai context, where the bird is also a zoonotic hazard \[vi] biosecurity suspicion of an exotic or notifiable disease such as hpai engages the biosecurity act 1993 and the duty to report suspected exotic disease must be reported to mpi on the exotic pest and disease hotline, 0800 80 99 66 \[vii] general principles of humane avian euthanasia aim of the procedure death occurs when the brain function necessary for life is permanently lost a humane method produces rapid, irreversible loss of consciousness, followed by loss of muscle activity, cessation of respiration and eventually cardiac arrest (method dependant) \[viii] methods that block muscle activity, respiration or cardiac function while the bird remains conscious are not acceptable as the sole means of euthanasia minimise fear and distress beforehand birds are highly stressed by handling, noise, light, and the presence of predators where there may be any delay to carrying out euthanasia, hold birds in a quiet, darkened, covered area or container away from other animals, minimise handling, and use sedation or analgesia where the bird is injured, distressed or self harming \[ix] confirm death death should be confirmed before disposal — by confirming the absence of heartbeat (method dependant) and respiration, fixed and dilated pupils, and loss of the corneal and third eyelid (nictitating membrane) reflexes check immediately after the procedure and again after three to five minutes; brief twitching after death, from uncoordinated dying nerves, is normal in the field, absence of movement, respiration and heartbeat for at least three minutes are used to confirm death 3 for any inhalant or injectable (narcosis based) method, a second, physical confirmatory step is good practice and is required in some settings \[x] after a physical or mechanical method, assess the brain, not the heart death is the irreversible loss of brain function; after a mechanical method (for example a captive bolt) the heart can continue to beat for several minutes, so effectiveness is judged by signs of brain death rather than by heartbeat in birds, check for the absence of rhythmic breathing (watch for abdominal movement in the vent area), and the absence of the corneal and third eyelid reflexes the first sign that a bird is regaining consciousness is a return of rhythmic breathing agonal gasping, by contrast, is a normal sign of death if rhythmic breathing or any other sign of recovery appears, the bird must be rendered insensible again immediately and a killing step repeated a second step (for a bird, an appropriate physical method or intravenous barbiturate) should follow any stun only method to ensure death \[xi] two step methods many acceptable approaches are two step an agent or action that produces unconsciousness (for example gaseous or injectable anaesthesia), followed by a step that ensures death (for example intravenous barbiturate, or a physical method applied to an already unconscious bird) physical methods that are only humane when applied to an insensible bird should never be applied to a conscious one choosing a method the factors that matter there is no single correct method for all birds the veterinarian should consider species and body size technique and drug route vary widely between a 12g passerine, a 600g companion parrot, a 4kg duck and a swan vascular access, the feasibility of cervical dislocation, and chamber based inhalational methods are all size dependent whether the bird is owned owned birds require informed consent and identity checks (microchip, leg band) wild birds have no owner to consent, but correct species identification still matters, particularly for threatened or protected species where permission from doc is required prior to conducting the euthanasia the setting a fully equipped clinic offers options (gaseous induction, intravenous barbiturate) that may not be available roadside or in the field field and emergency settings legitimately rely more on physical methods, applied competently the process a well outlined clinic protocol for dealing with sick birds would help mitigate risk for example a disposable container or box positioned outside where a member of the public can deposit a sick bird facilitates the process of drop off clear signage and instructions for the public should direct them to place the bird in the container a clear protocol for ppe and animal assessment should ensure staff safety is maximised clear guidance regarding permission for euthanasia of any bird for which hpai is a plausible diagnosis each of these steps will help manage risk and ensure trust in the profession number of birds a single bird, a small backyard flock and a large commercial flock are different problems large scale depopulation engages specialised methods, equipment and oversight beyond an individual veterinarian’s clinic resources human safety and biosecurity in a suspected hpai case, the method should reduce aerosol generation and blood splatter, and minimise close, prolonged contact diagnostic value where the carcass is needed for diagnosis (very likely in a suspected hpai case), the method must not destroy the tissues required bolus intravenous barbiturate and excessive doses cause artefacts; gunshot to the head and some physical methods destroy diagnostic tissue coordinate with mpi before euthanasia where diagnosis is intended \[xiii] competence and experience the single most important constraint a method is only acceptable if you can perform it reliably acceptable methods the following are accepted methods for avian euthanasia when performed by a competent person with appropriate equipment and drugs the right choice depends on the factors above note some companion animals, especially cats, are highly susceptible to hpai, with high mortality therefore, strict separation in time, space and equipment should be achieved also, gaseous anaesthesia apparatus should not be shared between susceptible species in a clinic setting gaseous anaesthetic induction followed by intravenous barbiturate induction with isoflurane or sevoflurane, then sodium pentobarbitone given intravenously (jugular, brachial/ulnar or medial metatarsal vein), is the preferred clinic approach for most companion and captive birds \[xiv] injectable anaesthetic induction or sedation followed by iv barbiturate the standard barbiturate euthanasia agent, given intravenously at a dose of between 120 \[xv] to 150 \[xvi] mg/kg sedating the bird first, even before an intravenous injection, reduces handing stress and wing flapping and makes accurate needle placement easier an intramuscular injection of a sedative (e g zoletil \[xvii] or combined im sedation protocol of midazolam and butorphanol \[xviii]; medetomidine + ketamine \[xix] ; midazolam + butorphanol + ketamine \[xx]) can be administered and then the bird can be left in a disposable container for 5 10 minutes depth of anaesthesia can be checked before administering pentobarb iv where the carcass is required for necropsy, give to effect rather than as a large bolus; high concentration formulations are typically diluted, and bolus dosing causes histological artefact \[xxi, xxi, xxii] non intravenous routes — only in a deeply anaesthetised or unconscious bird these routes are painful and unreliable and therefore should never be used in a conscious bird \[xxiii] where reliable venous access is impractical (common in very small or collapsed birds), barbiturate may be given by an alternative route only once the bird is already deeply anaesthetised, unconscious or comatose on this basis, intracardiac, intrahepatic and intraosseous injection are accepted, each recognised in the veterinary euthanasia literature for use in an unconscious or anaesthetised bird the intrahepatic route, performed competently, can be a practical alternative to intracardiac injection where the heart is hard to access intraosseous injection must not use the pneumatic bones (the humerus or femur), which communicate directly with the respiratory system veterinarians should use the distal ulna or proximal tibiotarsus the intracoelomic route should not be used in birds (see unacceptable methods) in the field or where in clinic options are unavailable injectable anaesthetic or sedative overdose followed by a lethal dose of a barbiturate this is the preferred method when in clinic options are unavailable and particularly when the veterinarian has little to no experience with the alternative methods listed below this method also helps mitigate the risk of liberating the virus deep unconsciousness induced with an injectable agent (e g zoletil \[xvii] or combined im sedation protocol of midazolam and butorphanol \[xviii]; medetomidine + ketamine \[xix]; midazolam + butorphanol + ketamine \[xx]), followed by intracardiac, intrahepatic or intraosseous injection to ensure death, is an accepted field approach \[xxiv] in the field where more appropriate options are unavailable and the veterinarian has the necessary competence injectable anaesthetic or sedative overdose followed by a secondary physical step deep unconsciousness induced with an injectable agent (e g zoletil \[xvii] or combined im sedation protocol of midazolam and butorphanol \[xviii]; medetomidine + ketamine \[xix]; midazolam + butorphanol + ketamine \[xx]), followed by blunt force trauma to the head, captive bolt to the head or cervical dislocation (size appropriate and competent operator) to ensure death, is an accepted field approach \[xxiv] cervical dislocation for small birds and appropriately sized poultry, performed by a competent operator for very small birds (under 100g) it is performed using instruments that crush the first cervical vertebra followed by disarticulation training should be undertaken on already dead or deeply anaesthetised birds for all poultry and other birds that weigh up to 3kg, neck dislocation is acceptable but should be followed by a secondary step (for example exsanguination) to ensure rapid death \[xxv] in larger birds, mechanical neck dislocation or neck crushing must not be used concussive blow to the head (skull rupture) in small birds is a method requiring high skill, is instantaneous and is acceptable from an animal welfare perspective it is recommended that is it not performed in public view or in instances where retention of brain material is important \[xxvi] in a situation such as a car park euthanasia of a wild bird, veterinarians may have limited options it may be appropriate for the wild bird to be placed in a “pillowcase” or something similar that would enable the veterinarian, wearing appropriate ppe, to administer an intramuscular injection and then a second fatal step such as a concussive blow to the head gunshot, using an appropriate firearm and ammunition for the species, for sick wild birds that cannot be readily captured, where it can be done safely and the operator is competent wounded birds must be killed promptly by a further well placed gunshot or secondary method \[xxvii] see the arms act 1983 https //www legislation govt nz/act/public/1983/44/en/latest/#dlm72622 poultry specific captive bolts, for appropriately sized poultry, performed by a competent operator, poultry specific captive bolts are an appropriate method of euthanasia larger numbers and flock depopulation planned euthanasia of large numbers of birds (for example a commercial flock in an hpai response) is a specialised undertaking and is generally directed and coordinated by mpi as the lead agency, not carried out ad hoc by an attending veterinarian unacceptable methods the following are not acceptable methods of avian euthanasia any method relying on hypoxia or hypercapnia as the sole agent while consciousness persists — including thoracic (chest) compression, exsanguination, or hypercapnia inducing oxygen displacement, used alone (note that nitrogen gas acts by displacing oxygen from the environment, creating an anoxic but not hypercapnic atmosphere, and is seen internationally as gold standard) thoracic compression is unacceptable for any bird species \[xxviii] subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of pentobarbitone, because of the pain associated with injecting a conscious bird by these routes \[xxix] intracardiac, intrahepatic or intraosseous injection in a conscious bird, owing to pain and the risk of tissue damage (these routes are acceptable only in a deeply anaesthetised or unconscious bird — see acceptable methods ) \[xxx] intracoelomic and intrapulmonary injection of pentobarbitone, in a bird in any state birds have a single coelomic cavity and no diaphragm, and their air sacs act as bellows for the lungs injected solution readily enters the air sacs, causing delayed absorption, irritation of the respiratory system, and death by drowning unlike the intracardiac, intrahepatic and intraosseous routes, these routes are not made acceptable by the bird being unconscious and should not be used \[xxxi] hypothermia (chilling/freezing) or drowning the sole exception is the euthanasia of embryonated eggs less than 50% of the way through incubation; embryos at or beyond 50% incubation, and eggs of unknown incubation (assumed to be at least 50% incubated), should be euthanased by methods used for neonates \[xxxii] informed consent and identification (owned birds) for an owned bird, obtain the client’s informed consent before proceeding, consistent with the code \[xxxiv] where consent is given verbally (for example by phone in an hpai situation), record it in the clinical record, as written confirmation provides additional protection where the owner is under 18 or has limited capacity to consent, consider identifying an appropriate agent or guardian check for a microchip and a leg band, and reconcile them with any identification the owner provides explaining what will happen during the procedure helps set the owner’s expectations and prepare them euthanasia and, in an outbreak, large scale culling, can also take an emotional toll on veterinarians, staff and any operators involved, and support should be available to them \[xxxv] for wild birds with no person in charge, a veterinarian may proceed with euthanasia of a severely sick or injured bird without involving another authority correct species identification remains important and notification may be required if a threatened or protected species https //www legislation govt nz/act/public/1953/31/en/latest/#dlm276814 is involved \[xxxvi] resources, competence and experience avian euthanasia requires skill, the right equipment, and access to appropriate drugs a veterinarian should not attempt a method they cannot perform reliably for the species and size of bird presented practising within one’s sphere of competence is a professional obligation, and competence is species and equipment specific \[xxxvii] practical expectations match method to competence for example, if you are not confident performing cervical dislocation on a bird of a given size, use an alternative you are competent in, or arrange for someone who is confidence with a 30g finch does not transfer to a swan train on the right material physical techniques should be learned and rehearsed on already dead or deeply anaesthetised birds before being relied upon in a conscious animal structured training in depopulation is available to new zealand registered veterinarians through the mpi and vet council’s vetnet biosecurity programme (on the myvc platform) although developed for a foot and mouth response, its depopulation modules build transferable skills \[xxxviii] know your limits and refer or collaborate a clinic that does not routinely see birds can still meet a bird’s welfare needs — performing euthanasia does not require avian medicine specialisation where a case exceeds your competence or resources, advice, referral or a pre arranged relationship with another practice is appropriate \[xxxix] have the drugs and equipment ready ensure pentobarbitone and induction agents are in stock, stored and recorded correctly, and that you have size appropriate needles, anaesthetic delivery, and restraint and ppe on hand for a suspect hpai case handled in a separate triage area, plan how controlled drugs will get there without the safe becoming contaminated with the virus for example, draw up the euthanasia dose in advance, or keep the barbiturate double bagged so the outer bag can be disinfected or replaced before it returns to the safe delegation to, and use by, non veterinarians pentobarbitone is a controlled drug a veterinarian may authorise a non veterinarian (e g a veterinary nurse) to hold and administer it to a specified animal under the veterinarian’s care but must comply with part 6 of the code and manage the associated risks \[xl] before authorising or delegating, consider the person’s competence, training, reliability and trustworthiness, and whether supervision is needed; safe storage and access, labelling, and the quantity authorised (managing both potency and volume to limit the potential for harm or diversion); the moral and psychological burden of performing euthanasia — there is significant professional and personal weight in this task, and delegation should be considered carefully; and whether a lower risk alternative would achieve the same end the supervising veterinarian remains responsible for ensuring the procedure is carried out competently, lawfully and humanely members of the public, carers or others who present a bird for euthanasia should be offered, or directed to, appropriate support, recognising that euthanasia is distressing for many people \[xli] special considerations where hpai is suspected where there are reasonable grounds to believe a bird may be infected with hpai h5n1, the welfare standard for euthanasia does not change, but human safety and biosecurity shape the approach during a biosecurity incursion, both the animal welfare act 1999 and the biosecurity act 1993 apply neither overrides the other, and animal welfare must be safeguarded throughout any culling or depopulation \[xlii] people first personal and team safety take precedence veterinarians are not expected to put their health or safety at undue risk to provide a service \[xliii] ppe and isolation wear full ppe (at minimum a facemask/n95 respirator, eye protection, gloves, and gown or coveralls), isolate the bird immediately, and follow strict infection control and disinfection procedures \[xliv] choose lower exposure methods where possible, choose methods that minimise aerosol generation, blood splatter and prolonged close restraint restraining a bird for intravenous injection can increase handler exposure and this should be weighed against the welfare benefits of the method sedation should be used to reduce both handling stress and exposure where practicable \[xlv] it may be appropriate to reduce dander and body fluid aerosolisation by, for example, covering the bird with a dampened light weight cloth while it is being handled hpai h5n1 concentrates in the brain and upper respiratory tract, so physical methods that involve handling the skull and neck (such as cervical dislocation or decapitation) carry a higher risk of contaminating the handler and the environment in a suspected case gaseous methods, in turn, occupy an anaesthetic machine and leave masks and circuits needing decontamination, which may be impractical in a triage area for these reasons \ an intramuscular sedative or anaesthetic (given into the pectoral muscles or thigh) followed by intravenous barbiturate is often the most suitable approach for a suspected hpai case anaesthetic chambers dedicated to this purpose may be used to reduce the handlers’ exposure to aerosolised materials, as well as helping reduce the bird’s stress these are relative, not absolute, considerations, and are balanced against what is practical at the time the veterinarian should apply their own knowledge, techniques and skills to manage the exposure risk while still meeting the welfare standard \[xlvi] companion animals can be affected too hpai h5n1 is not confined to birds overseas, cats and dogs have been infected cats in particular are susceptible through predatory behaviour and consumption of, or contact with, infected birds or raw poultry now that hpai h5n1 is present in new zealand, it should be kept on the differential for a companion animal presenting with compatible signs and a plausible exposure history (for example, a cat that hunts or an animal fed a raw poultry diet) the same principles apply as for birds prioritise human and team safety, use appropriate ppe, isolate the patient, minimise exposure, and coordinate testing and reporting preserve diagnostic value and coordinate if a bird is to be tested, the method must not destroy the tissues needed, and euthanasia, sampling and disposal should be coordinated with mpi patient side avian influenza antigen tests are not recommended for this decision as they give too many false negatives to be reliable, so testing is arranged through mpi, which will advise on sampling report suspected hpai to the mpi exotic pest and disease hotline, 0800 80 99 66 \[xlvii] do not move birds unnecessarily where hpai is strongly suspected, avoid moving birds before sampling euthanase, sample and dispose on site where practicable to limit spread \[xlviii] carcass disposal safe options include composting, on site burial, incineration and landfill choose based on flock size, space, cost, local conditions and applicable rules, and in coordination with mpi and the relevant local authority \[xlix] for a single suspect bird at a clinic, the practical approach is to double bag the carcass, disinfect the outside of the outer bag and allow the contact time to pass, then freeze it until collection and dispose of it as clinical waste disinfection matters because freezing does not kill the virus post mortem it is strongly recommended not to perform a post mortem examination on a suspect carcass, and not to collect feathers \[l] tikanga or other cultural practices may be incorporated if you think it is appropriate and can be done safely many cultural practices involve close interaction with birds, feathers, bones, marine mammals, and the environments where these species live you can find mpi’s advice on tikanga, kawa, and other cultural practices here worked scenarios a single companion parrot, owned, in the clinic (no hpai suspicion) confirm identity and obtain informed consent induce with isoflurane, then give intravenous pentobarbitone (brachial or jugular vein) confirm death document consent and the procedure a single sick wild duck presented by a member of the public, hpai plausible phone triage first where possible if accepted, isolate immediately and put on full ppe sedate the bird to reduce handling stress and exposure, then euthanase by an induction plus barbiturate or competently performed physical method that preserves diagnostic tissue avoid methods that aerosolise or splatter, or employ techniques that mitigate the effects do not move the bird before discussing sampling with mpi report by calling 0800 80 99 66 coordinate disposal refer the member of the public to their health provider for advice document the encounter, including where the bird was found and whether other birds are affected \[li] a small backyard flock with sudden multiple deaths sudden death in several birds is a hallmark of hpai treat as a suspected exotic disease event and contact mpi immediately (0800 80 99 66) do not handle the birds until advised and keep pets away from the birds do not depopulate ad hoc please seek medical advice if you feel unwell after being around sick or dead birds references appear as numbered footnotes throughout this document appendix 1 wildlife and zoo veterinarians available to provide advice regarding tricky wild bird situations nb please respect that these contact details are given for veterinary use only and must not be shared with the wider community name location phone email pauline howard south island wildlife hospital 0212236988 howardpauline30\@gmail com lisa argilla wildlife hospital dunedin 0210603571 hospital\@wildlifehospitaldunedin org nz megan jolly massey university 021579240 m jolly\@massey ac nz wildbase massey university 0800 738 363 and ask to be put through to wildbase wildbase\@massey ac nz kirsten anderson wellington zoo 021 815 155 kirsten anderson\@wellingtonzoo com vet department (work hours, seven days, leave a short message if no answer) auckland zoo 027 406 1943 species classifier the aotearoa species classifier app can help you identify the species of bird you are presented with scan the qr code below, or visit https //what is this cms waikato ac nz the app also works where there is no wi fi or cell coverage references \[i] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak https //hub vetcouncil org nz/veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak ; ministry for primary industries, information for veterinarians about avian influenza https //www mpi govt nz/biosecurity/pest and disease threats to new zealand/animal disease threats to new zealand/bird flu/information for veterinarians ; department of conservation, avian influenza https //www doc govt nz/our work/wildlife health/avian influenza/ \[ii] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — personal and team safety take precedence and veterinarians are not expected to put their health or safety at undue risk; where hpai is credibly suspected it is acceptable to decline to examine a wild bird and to direct the person to leave or return it; a proportion of birds with clinical signs recover this position differs from, and is not displaced by, the uk comparator (british veterinary association and others, avian influenza (ai) advice for vets dealing with wild birds and backyard poultry, march 2024), which asserts a duty to provide at least emergency care to all sick and injured birds \[iii] veterinary council of new zealand, code of professional conduct (2025), part 1 — animal welfare; animal welfare act 1999 \[iv] veterinary council of new zealand, code of professional conduct (2025); competency standards and performance indicators for veterinarians (october 2015) — practising within the boundaries of competence, except in an emergency where immediate relief of pain is required \[v] veterinary council of new zealand, code of professional conduct (2025), part 6 — veterinary medicines; agricultural compounds and veterinary medicines act 1997; medicines act 1981; misuse of drugs act 1975; misuse of drugs regulations 1977 \[vi] health and safety at work act 2015; health new zealand | te whatu ora, avian influenza health and safety guidance for workplaces \[vii] biosecurity act 1993; ministry for primary industries, exotic pest and disease hotline 0800 80 99 66 \[viii] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — aim, mechanisms, pre euthanasia handling, and confirmation of death \[ix] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — minimising fear and distress before euthanasia, including quiet, darkened holding, minimal handling, and sedation or analgesia for injured or distressed birds \[x] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — confirmation of death, including field indicators (absence of movement, respiration and heartbeat, and the onset of rigor mortis) \[xi] central michigan university iacuc, euthanasia of avians — standard operating procedure (16 september 2021), citing the american veterinary medical association guidelines for the euthanasia of animals (2020) — requirement for a secondary physical confirmatory step following inhalant or injectable euthanasia \[xii] ministry for primary industries, “a good death” (vetscript, october/november 2025) — death is the irreversible loss of brain function; after a mechanical method assess signs of brain death rather than heartbeat; rhythmic breathing is the first sign of recovery and requires the animal to be rendered insensible again immediately; agonal gasping and brief post death twitching are normal; confirm death immediately and again at three to five minutes \[xiii] fao, wild bird hpai surveillance sample collection from healthy, sick and dead birds (animal production and health manual no 4, 2006) — method must not compromise diagnostic value; do not move birds prior to sampling where hpai is strongly suspected \[xiv] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — recommended anaesthetic and barbiturate techniques and routes \[xv] mcgill university avian euthanasia sop https //www mcgill ca/research/files/research/304 avian euthanasia approved 2025 01 13 pdf \[xvi] aneesa malik msc, bsc (hons), rvn, cert vnes, cert vnecc avian euthanasia welfare considerations & clinical techniques \[xvii] zoletil doses that dunedin wildlife hospital use (perscom) are make up the bottle according to manufacturer instructions 0 1mls for birds 100g and smaller 0 2 0 3mls im for birds 100 500g 0 5 0 7mls for birds 500 1kg etc \[xviii] alternative combined im sedation protocol for avian species is midazolam (1 2 mg/kg) and butorphanol (4mg/kg) used by wildbase massey (perscom) \[xix] medetomidine 50 100ug/kg + ketamine 3 10mg/kg (https //nzva org nz/assets/clinical resources/hpai/hpai guidance pdf) \[xx] midazolam 0 2 1mg/kg + butorphanol 2 4mg/kg + ketamine 3 10mg/kg (https //nzva org nz/assets/clinical resources/hpai/hpai guidance pdf) aneesa malik msc, bsc (hons), rvn, cert vnes, cert vnecc avian euthanasia welfare considerations & clinical techniques \[xxi] american veterinary medical association, guidelines for the euthanasia of animals (2020) — sodium pentobarbital at 60–100 mg/kg for birds, and sedation or anaesthesia before injection to reduce stress in wild, fearful or excited birds see also central michigan university institutional animal care and use committee, euthanasia of avians sop (iacuc 009) \[xxii] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — intravenous sodium pentobarbitone as the standard agent, and dosing to effect where the carcass is required for necropsy to limit histological artefact \[xxiii] alternative routes in birds where venous access is impractical american veterinary medical association, guidelines for the euthanasia of animals (2020) — intracardiac, intrahepatic and intraosseous injection acceptable in a deeply anaesthetised, unconscious or comatose animal, with intraosseous injection using the distal ulna or proximal tibiotarsus rather than the pneumatic humerus or femur the avma is freely available the association of avian veterinarians australasian committee policy is consistent for the intracardiac and intraosseous routes \[xxiv] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — field euthanasia of wild birds; fao, wild bird hpai surveillance (2006), chapter 2 — field euthanasia methods \[xxv] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — cervical dislocation parameters and secondary methods for poultry \[xxvi] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — skull rupture / concussive stunning \[xxvii] fao, wild bird hpai surveillance (2006), chapter 2 — firearms for collection of sick birds that cannot be captured; humane killing of wounded birds \[xxviii] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — thoracic compression and sole agent hypoxia unacceptable \[xxix] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — unacceptable routes of barbiturate administration in conscious birds \[xxx] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — the intracardiac, intrahepatic and intraosseous routes are painful and unreliable in a conscious bird and are acceptable only once the bird is deeply anaesthetised or unconscious \[xxxi] american veterinary medical association, guidelines for the euthanasia of animals (2020) — because birds have a single coelomic cavity and no diaphragm, and the air sacs act as bellows for the lungs, solution injected by the intracoelomic or intrapulmonary route may enter the air sacs, causing delayed absorption, respiratory irritation and drowning vet council adopts the more conservative position that these routes should not be used in birds the avma is freely available \[xxxii] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — hypothermia, drowning and euthanasia of embryonated eggs \[xxxiv] veterinary council of new zealand, code of professional conduct (2025) — informed consent, including for euthanasia; veterinary council of new zealand, informed consent technical advice \[xxxv] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — consent and identification for owned birds \[xxxvi] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — euthanasia of wild birds without a person in charge; species identification and notification of threatened/endangered species new zealand context wildlife act 1953 and department of conservation \[xxxvii] veterinary council of new zealand, code of professional conduct (2025); competency standards and performance indicators for veterinarians (october 2015) — practising within the boundaries of competence, which is species and equipment specific \[xxxviii] ministry for primary industries and veterinary council of new zealand, vetnet biosecurity programme — foot and mouth disease response training for veterinarians, including depopulation modules, available on the myvc platform (see “a good death”, vetscript, october/november 2025) \[xxxix] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — avian medicine capability note (euthanasia does not require particular avian medicine expertise; referral and pre arranged relationships) \[xl] veterinary council of new zealand, who can administer controlled drugs (including pentobarbitone)? and authorising controlled drugs for use by non veterinarians (technical advice); code of professional conduct (2025), part 6; misuse of drugs act 1975 and regulations 1977 \[xli] association of avian veterinarians australasian committee, policy document avian euthanasia — bereavement support for those presenting birds \[xlii] ministry for primary industries, “a good death” (vetscript, october/november 2025) — during a biosecurity incursion both the animal welfare act 1999 and the biosecurity act 1993 apply, neither overrides the other, and animal welfare must be ensured during culling operations \[xliii] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — health and safety priority, ppe, isolation and disinfection \[xliv] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — full ppe, immediate isolation, and infection control and disinfection procedures; see also health new zealand | te whatu ora, avian influenza health and safety guidance for workplaces \[xlv] fao, wild bird hpai surveillance (2006), chapter 2 — special considerations for euthanasia of birds suspected of h5n1 infection; restraint for iv injection may increase handler exposure \[xlvi] wildlife veterinarians of the new zealand veterinary association, high pathogenicity avian influenza (hpai) guidance for general practice veterinary clinics in aotearoa new zealand — hpai h5n1 concentrates in the brain and upper respiratory tract, so physical methods that handle the skull and neck risk contaminating the handler and environment; gaseous methods raise decontamination and practicality problems in a triage area; intramuscular sedation into the pectoral muscles followed by intravenous barbiturate is recommended for suspected cases \[xlvii] fao, wild bird hpai surveillance (animal production and health manual no 4, 2006) — the euthanasia method must not compromise diagnostic value; biosecurity act 1993; ministry for primary industries, exotic pest and disease hotline 0800 80 99 66 \[xlviii] fao, wild bird hpai surveillance (animal production and health manual no 4, 2006) — where hpai is strongly suspected, avoid moving birds before sampling; euthanase, sample and dispose on site where practicable to limit spread \[xlix] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — carcass disposal options \[l] wildlife veterinarians of the new zealand veterinary association, high pathogenicity avian influenza (hpai) guidance for general practice veterinary clinics in aotearoa new zealand — for a suspect carcass, double bag, disinfect the outer bag and freeze until collection (freezing does not kill the virus), and dispose of as clinical waste; do not perform post mortem examinations; and there can be no feather collection for iwi or other purposes \[li] veterinary council of new zealand, veterinary guidance for managing public presentations of sick or dead wild birds during an hpai outbreak — recommended actions on presentation of a suspect wild bird; sudden death in several birds as a hallmark sign; mpi as lead agency